STUDENT MOBILITY OR EMIGRATION FLOW? THE CASE OF STUDENTS COMMUTING FROM SERBIA TO HUNGARY

Student mobility between two European countries in transition, Hungary and Serbia, was considered for the period 2001-2010. The high motivation and number of Hungarian-speaking students emigrating/commuting to Hungary began in 1990, with the beginning of the Yugoslav Wars. In 2010, 1,385 Hungarian-speaking students (from Vojvodina, Serbia) studied in Hungary and 3,152 in Serbia. Student mobility between Hungary and Serbia is highly concentrated and causes a very low returning rate of educated young elite (approximately 30%). For this reason, the future of the Hungarian minority has begun to be put into question in Serbia, in the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, where their percentage within whole population is noticeably decreasing (1991: 16.9%, 2001: 14.3%). The research has been focused on answering the following questions: Are there integration conflicts in the autochthon minority within the state borders of Serbia? What can higher education offer to these students? Does the region offer enough to provide perspectives for young members of the elite? Will early student mobility end with continuous emigration? Empirical background: Interviews with young adult migrants from Serbia to Hungary; Location: Serbia. Objective: To examine the motives and willingness to emigrate among the Hungarian young adults/students from Vojvodina. Interview subjects: 18 university/college students or young adults with a diploma (from Vojvodina). It is important to note that only those young adults were interviewed who have returned to Serbia having finished their educational career or who are likely to come back later. Conclusions in brief: The Yugoslav Wars, worsening economic conditions, and low living standards have significantly influenced the willingness of the youth to migrate. The motives of migration among the Hungarian youth in Vojvodina are gaining professional experience, broadening knowledge, and improving language. Hungary is the first target country of migration for linguistic and cultural reasons and in the last 20 years has naturally become the target country of permanent settling and emigration of the young Hungarian elite.


INTRODUCTION
The Autonomous Province of Vojvodina is the only autonomous province in Serbia that, after historical changes, has preserved the multiethnic structure of its population even today. It is a European region where about thirty different autochthon national minorities or ethnic groups live together. The Serbs, who established the state, are the most numerous national group, followed by Hungarians, whose number, according to the 2002 census, was 290,207 (total population in Vojvodina: 2,024,487). The numbers of the Hungarian national group are declining. In 1961, there were 442,561;in 1981, the number decreased to 385,356, andin 2002, the number went down to 290,207. The number of Vojvodinian Hungarians has fallen about 50,000, or round 17 %. These numbers don't add up for the past 15 years (Gábrity Molnár, 2003, 2006a, 2008a, Penev et al., 2007. The hardship of minority life has resulted in continuous assimilation, an aging population, and emigration in many cases. A basic characteristic of Hungarians as a nation is their rural mentality, which revolves around the perpetual seeking of success in the homeland. In spite of the constant efforts made for preserving cultural and national identity in parallel with an intensification of nationalism over the past twenty years and under socio-political pressurethe living space of Hungarians in Vojvodina has been narrowed to the region on the River Tisa and to some scattered settlements. Hungarian-language schools provide education for the national group up to secondary-school level. Higher education in Vojvodina does not provide adequate (and sufficient) potential for young Hungarians (Gábrity Molnár, 2003a, 2003b, 2005, 2006b, 2007, 2008cTakács, 2008Takács, , 2009).
Given the political and social changes in Central Eastern Europe, the conflicts of internal Serbian politics (e.g., wars, embargoes, bombing, and intensifying nationalism), the elimination first of mental and then of physical borders (simplified process for obtaining Hungarian citizenship), ambitious Hungarian intellectuals of Vojvodina have turned towards Hungary (Nađ, 2006;Gábrity Molnár, 2006a, 2008a, 2008bKorhecz, 2009). To sum up, first, the national minority's view of the conditions provided by the Serbian higher education system, and second, the negative social (political and moral) reorganisation happening in Serbia have activated the movement of the inhabitants in the border region and have motivated emigration.
In order to present the processes of migration for educational purposes in the Serbian-Hungarian border region, this study based on a literature review and statistical analyses in addition to primary data sources (sociological depth interviews).

Young Vojvodinian Hungarians in migration processes in Serbia and Hungary
Hungary became an interesting destination for migrants from Serbia after the disintegration of the Socialist Federal Republic of Serbia (SFRY). Between 1988 and1999, 155,105 refugees arrived in Hungary (Tóth Pál, 2001). About 30% of the refugees were Hungarians. Grečić considers Hungary as a location of significant ethnic migration (Grečić, 2001), with a remarkable continuity (Takač-Kinčeš, 2010). Nađ describes the period between 1991 and 1993 as the years when intellectuals left, limited-liability companies (Ltds) were founded, and capital fled (Nađ, 2006); workers and students who had finished secondary school also left in this period (Tóth Pál, 1997, cited by Gábrity Molnár, 2001. The education of youth has been (and is) one of Hungary's most important roles.
Between 1988 and 1994 10.3% of all foreign students studying in Hungary were Hungarians from Yugoslavia (Tóth Pál, 1997). Gábrity Molnár in her research cites the 1999/2000 school year when 395 primary school pupils, 676 secondary school pupils and 600 students were studying in Hungary (Gábrity Molnár, 2001). In 2001, T. Mirnics summarised the migration motivations of students as follows: the primary reasons are language (problems of mother-tongue Hungarian-speaking school children in a Serbianlanguage environment (Nađ, 2006)), lower educational standards in Serbia, and poor living conditions at home. Almost every young adult had already considered the idea of migration, mostly because of better material conditions and professional chances. Hungary is in the first place of preferred target countries, followed by Western Europe, the U.S.A., Australia and Canada (T. Mirnics, 2001). Hungary often acts as a "springboard" (Nađ, 2006) for transit migrants (Grečić, 2001). People start to think of migration when they feel that the current situationthe loss of stability in themselves, the environment, the social system of institutionsis no longer tenable (Mežnarić, S., 2003). Mihailović highlights the transition period characterised by gerontocracy, self-destructive public spirit, chaos, and a fight for biological survival. He calls these generations the "victims" of the 1990s, the millennium and the potential future. In his research, "catastrophic social events" and their "social expense" (or 'social costs') are presented refined (Mihailović, S., 2004).
Young Vojvodinian Hungarians "obtain a new opportunity by studying abroad", in a new "philanthropical environment" where "they are only foreigners", Hungary is a "gift" for them, "they receive it as a temporary residence" and "they do not choose it". This a country where they have "more opportunities" after university, even "to go on to another advanced western culture" after becoming acquainted with the "normal, democratic course of things," yet with the awareness that after, finishing their studies, "it is desirable or compulsory for young Hungarians from neighbouring countries to return to their homeland" (T. Mirnics, 2001 ). However, ambitions for learning, further training and professional advancement or even the employment of young people from Serbia remain only desires, since they cannot be fulfilled in Serbia (Mihailović, S., 2004). Preconditions for fulfilling them would be "democratic development" of the homeland, "tolerance", "openness", "normal living conditions", and "job and adequate living opportunities", which together may be able to resolve the question of "leaving or remaining" among young people (T. Mirnics, 2001). Mihailović's study reveals that every second youngster from Serbia would like to leave, to go to Europe "and the developed world, alone, without Serbia!" Conversely, others want to go to Europe together with Serbia, or better into a time machine, back to the "famed past". In summary, young adults have been waiting for two decades simply "to graduate and emigrate" (Mihailović, S., 2004).
Among the losses from emigration, Gábrity Molnár mentions human, material and demographic ones, resulting in "weakness of the region and lack of development potentials" (Gábrity Molnár, 2008b). The lack of professionals is a source of further problems: among others, slow economic development, decreasing labour productivity, lack of innovation, technological backwardness, and gradual loss of competitiveness.
In contrast to this, the Hungarian homeland (or some members of the intellectual elite) is one-sided, hoping that the emigrants will partly or entirely return home. For example, Gredelj in his research deals with the possibility of "virtual returning" and the "interactive virtual networking" of experts and Serbian intellectual capital. He differentiates several groups: "those who actually return", "half-breeds", "seasonal emigrants", and "migratory birds". These terms need at least a brief explanation/definition. He calls attention to mobilising their knowledge, experience and relationships (Gredelj, 2006). In connection with this, Korhecz would like to dispel the "concept of non-liveable homeland" among the emigrants, in front of whom new chances are open in their former home (Korhecz, 2009). Grečić in 2001 expected the reformation of the system by potential returners, "those who separate professional work from politics", guest professors, and actors leading and assisting scientific researches. He defines two possibilities for utilising the "professional, material potential" represented by Yugoslav emigrants: returning home (return option), and the intellectual network of the diaspora (diaspora option, diaspora network) (Grečić, 2001).
According to Kocsis Károly's calculations, migration losses of the Hungarian community living in Serbia between 1948and 1991were 69,193 people (Kocsis, 2002 Cites: Gábrity Molnár, 2006a). We face the "disappearing" of new generation intellectual elite when analysing population movements in Serbia on the millennium. Fercsik quotes some estimation in her study, according to which about 50% of young Hungarians coming from neighbouring countries do not return home after finishing their studies in Hungary (Gödri - Tóth, 2005. Cites: Fercsik, 2008, and this way education and higher education is really a migration channel, which may be considered for the preparatory phase of permanent settling (Fercsik, 2008), or a possible springboard towards Western Europe.
For compensation of migration losses of Vojvodina Hungarians and for stopping further decrease, it is necessary to provide conditions for permanent remaining in the homeland and for returning there. The migration of Vojvodina Hungarians for educational purposes is reversible, and it should be observed by the political elite as a rationally utilisable phenomenon. The returning of young people graduating in Hungary, mobilising their experience, relationshipstrans national networksare necessary for the local-regional elite in their ambitions for founding a university. A Vojvodian (multiethnic) university could eliminate migration for educational purposes and the further waves of migration over adequate higher educational offer, cross-border organisational solutions, teaching in mother tongue and with the toolset of regional economic development.

Recent cross-border movementscommuting students in the region
The role of border regionfrom the perspective of 20 yearsis redefined, receiving a "postmodern" interpretation, where social, cultural and economic relations between individuals and groups are revitalising (Langer, 2001). The years of wars have represented the Serbian-Hungarian border as a protecting wall, where young people have left behind a country struggling with huge problems for a more perspective country that provides more comfortable life and better studying conditions. Hungary has become attractive to youngsters (Tóth Pál, 2001, Gábrity Molnár, 2001, Fábri, 2008, Fercsik, 2008, L. Rédei, 2009). In recent years there is an increasing and more characteristic group of young commuting students who study in Hungary and live in Serbia in the border region. Szeged has a more and more obvious role in higher education (Pál, 2003) The University of Szeged is the biggest "absorber" in the region. We can see from the application data of Serbian citizens that there is a huge interest for high-quality training in Hungarian teaching language. The number of applicants is high every year. In recent years (2007)(2008)(2009)(2010) about 300 students were applied, while there were 2-3 times more applicants (!). In 2010 there were 927 applicants and 293 students were admitted (on the faculties of the University of Szeged) (Educatio Kht. 2011). The ranking of scientific fields by the number of admitted students: philology (21,5%), natural sciences (16,4%), informatics (8,2%), medicine (20,1%) social sciences (13,3%). Students are very consciously choosing between professions that are not available in Serbia (in Hungarian teaching language). The potential migration loss is big since the border represents dynamic movement for educational purposes and a latter emigration channel as well.
Almost half-half is the rate of Vojvodina Hungarians in the analysed border region (Szeged-Subotica) who study at home or in Hungary (based on the statistics of first-year students): 61 -30% in Hungary (Szeged, Budapest, Pécs, Debrecen), -50% on national state faculties, partly in Hungarian teaching language (Subotica-Novi Sad), -20% on private faculties in and near Subotica, training programs with questionable accreditation. Some problems emerge from the realistic and existing danger of migration (permanent settling) because ¼ of young people remaining in the region has technical qualifications, ¼ of them are teachers and kindergarten teachers, and further ¼ are economists and managers, so they will be potential graduated unemployed after leaving higher education system! The aim of this paper is to analyse the characteristics of migration for educational (and partly employment) purposes in the (Hungarian-Serbian) border region, highlighting the success potentials of young graduated intellectuals returning to Serbia. young Hungarian with university degree is welcomed in the region, even in the case when it is a profession that is fashionable and already in oversupply (e.g. economicsmanagement training).

Widening learning horizonts, educational potentials in Hungary and Serbia
During the depth interviews it has been proven that the actual learning orientation preferences of young people abroad and at home, the popular higher education system in Arguments for and against studying abroad: -Concerning the attainment of profession, it is easier to learn in mother tongue (but in case of employment in the homeland the lack of knowing the official language is an obvious disadvantage), -Higher education of good quality and high standard, various professions offered, easy accessibility (e.g. Szeged), scholarship policy (Hungarian State, Vojvodina Hungarian Higher Education College), -Better chances for employment (with more financial benefits), even on the labour market of the European Union.
Arguments/counter-arguments formulated by students remaining at home: school preference based on the language of teaching (entirely or partly in Hungarian), disregard of personal motivation and interests (further problems with the language of the environment), closeness, expenses (travel costs, residence, favourable schooling fees, state financing) as decisive factors during the selection of school, more information (faculties in Subotica and Novi Sad are well-known at home), poor quality of higher education, loss of prestige: outdated system, outdated methods (literature from the '70s and '80s), big classes, hierarchic teacher-student relation, counter-selective system.
According to the individual opinion of the interviewees, the chance for learning in Hungarian teaching language decisively influences the selection of institution. In many cases the labour-market prospects of the diploma become marginal. It is especially true in case of Serbia, where the higher education offer is narrow, while Hungary provides great professional potentials for students (individual professional aspirations, later labour-market perspectives). In Serbia the emphasis is on studying at "any kind of" faculty, since according to the "general consciousness -in general" it is easier to get employed as a graduate, and the principle of "it is better to learn than to be unemployed" is prevalent.
Concerning the field of interest of individuals, it is important to emphasise (especially referring to Serbia) that they first determine the place of their further education and only afterwards choose profession. Friends and partly parents have a decisive role in decisionmaking. The costs of the studies further optimise the decision: it is a standpoint that the institution should not be far from the native town since this way the costly "residence" in the place of the college/university can be avoided, or in case of commuting the smaller distance leads to lower travel costs. The quality of education has a special treatment during the selection of school. This could be the main reason for studying abroad.
Recent graduates entering the labour market may discover differences between degrees obtained in these two countries. The primary establishment is the following: as an economist it is more difficult to find a job in both countries (saturated market), so selfemployment in private enterprises, as well as retraining, further training and undeclared work are quite often.
Those who have graduated in Serbia are generally satisfied with their diploma (prestige of a diploma issued by a national state university, knowledge of Serbian). They do not refuse the chance to (possibly) achieve a second degree in Hungary. However, it is a fact that a diploma achieved in Vojvodina is valuable only if it is applicable on a specific workplace (foreign trade, market relations, foreign language etc.). Yet it is important to have a diploma recognised in the European Union. Those who have graduated in Hungary believe that they received training of higher quality compared to learning in Serbia, and they do not agree with the obligatory, lengthy and costly process of diploma nostrification (long waiting period, discriminative treatment, number of additional exams depending on an individualadministrative worker, humiliations etc.). In many cases interviewees have mentioned nostrification of thetheir diploma as an obstacle to returning home. This is a country that often keeps the holder of a diploma from the European Union waiting for even two years, prolonging his/her entrance to the labour market. Possibly more assertive selforganised minority attitude, action and lobby would be necessary to improve this situation.
(…) "We need to obtain the training program, have it translated, which is expensive and time-consuming. I think it is a waste of time and money." (…) "In my opinion, a diploma issued by a renowned, widely recognised university should not be pried into whether it is good or not. I do not believe they really do any analysis or that the diplomas are actually compared." -We can often hear of cases when in Serbia they nostrificate a college diploma as a university one, while a master degree is degraded because of the lack of similar program, this way they hindering students willing to return home, according to a 31 years old PhD student (University of Pécs, Hungary).

Prospects of emigration and of returning home after a migration for educational purposes among young Hungarians of Vojvodina
In the past two decades, characterised by wars and public disturbance, economic

SUMMARY
The number of autochthon Hungarian inhabitants in Vojvodina has significantly fallen, and their identity and regional self-organisation have also become weaker. Emigration is among the processes that have contributed to demographic decline of the national group.
Vojvodina Hungarians with Serbian citizenship have moved to Hungary in great quantities for the past 20 years. Their migration was motivated by political factors, the warlike situation. A characteristic group of this population movement is the learning-migratingcommuting youth that has more and more often decided for studying in Hungary, especially for the past 10-12 years.
The commuting students learning in Hungary begin their university/college studies (rarely even the secondary school) in the "foreign country". After the wars have finished and the period of expressed political and social doubtfulness have passed, the phenomenon and tendency of studying abroad have not fallen into the background. Migration for learning purposes is a significant and everyday phenomenon in the border region (a typical example is the Szeged-Subotica relation). The choice of profession of young Hungarians of Vojvodina is decisively influenced by the possibility of learning in mother tongue primarily, followed by material reasons (schooling fee, travel costs, distance etc.). The role of Hungary and the Hungarian higher education manifests in quality education (various offer, attractive fields of study, labour-market motives, diploma issued in EU, evolving individual interests).
The conditions of studying (higher education) in the homelandconsidering other career prospects as wellare still not provided for young Hungarians of Vojvodina. It is among others affected by recently emerging nationalism, isolating efforts, turning inward, seeking for cultural values and roots among the national group, neglecting the language of the environment (Serbian). In Serbia young people primarily choose profession in the fields of economics, technical studies or pedagogy (because training is partly or entirely organised in Hungarian teaching language), which decision is also influenced by distance from the family. This fact also proves explicit rural mentality of Hungarians.
Almost all of the interviewees graduating in Hungary have returned home, and even those who "remained abroad" have not refused the possibility of settling in Vojvodina. The cause of it lies in strong devotion to family, friends and the homeland itself. In case of migration the target country is Hungary in the first place, the reason for whichbeside language and cultural factorsis in the smallest possible distance (especially in the towns of the border region). The willingness to migration could be strengthened by worsening economic and political situation in Serbia. The respondents are ready to move to abroad temporarily in order to achieve professional experience, improve their knowledge and language skills, widen their horizon and gain new ideas.
Stayingremaining in Serbia resulted in strong emotional relations. Public spirit is strong, decades of interdependence and collective culture implied close ties. This has also influenced those who have returned home after finishing their studies in Hungary, and this keeps at home those who have studied in Serbia. Still young people do not return home in many cases (according to some estimation between 30-50%). With their emigration the national community suffers enduring damages (brain drain, loss of social status, biologicalreproductive and demographic losses). Studying in the homeland (with adequate innovative, cross-border organisations, institutionalisation of multiethnic higher education) could probably stabilise the remaining of the national group in Serbia.